Domestic Tourism Essay

Whether it is to rest, discover new things, meet others or to have a unique experience, everyone has a right to tourism; in short, there are not, there should not be, and there cannot be two categories of human beings, those who can be tourists and those who can only receive them. These two activities are, in fact, but two sides of the same human activity; both of them are noble and respectable and everyone is entitled to them. Domestic tourism (DT), historically speaking, is in fact the first form of tourism that was practised and today it continues to account for the most part of this activity by far: it is estimated that out of the 4.8 billion tourist arrivals per year (2008 figure), 4 billion, or 83%, correspond to domestic tourism. Likewise, the UNWTO’s economists estimate that at the global level domestic tourism represents: * 73% of total overnights * 74% of arrivals and 69% of overnights at hotels * 89% of arrivals and 75% of overnights in other (non-hotel) accommodations In light of these impressive figures, one is prompted to ask three questions: 1. What are the characteristics of domestic tourism? 1. AS FOR ITS CHARACTERISTICS, especially when compared to international tourism, it is possible to start with three fundamental observations: * 11. In contrast to international tourists, domestic tourists know the destination, its language, its customs, its laws, its climate, its cultural context. This has at least two consequences: * 111. As a general rule, domestic tourists are more demanding, especially when it comes to the quality of products, and also with regard to their consumer-protection rights * 112. Out of the four main motivations of tourists (discovery, encountering others, experiencing something unique, resting) the last two are certainly more prominent among domestic tourists * 1121. They seek a very wide diversity of types of destinations and tourism activities, in other words, the range of product offerings should be as broad as possible. * 1122. At the same time, domestic tourism is practiced more in a sedentary (staying in the same place) than a nomadic manner, the latter being more suited for more distant destinations. * 12. Second characteristic: domestic destinations are nearer * 121. Visits are more frequent and there are more repeat stays, notably with family and especially in the rural region of provenance of many urban residents * 122. Land transport is predominantly used: 88% compared to 51% for international tourism * 13. Third characteristic: as the destination is nearer and land transport is used more, the cost of trips is lower: * 131.Given that the barrier represented by trip cost is brought down, domestic travellers seek the best price-quality ratio, or often the lowest possible price, in all segments of the tourism value chain: accommodation, food services, tourism activities, shopping, etc†¦ * 132. they therefore seek alternative, non-hotel accommodations because, among other things, they are going to return several times to the destination and, while there, they prepare subsequent stays by informing themselves about the local accommodation offerings * 133. last, but not least importantly, they stay for longer periods * 14. The combination of these three basic characteristics (knowledge and proximity of the destination, lower cost of transport) brings about an entire series of other consequences; five of them can be mentioned: * 141. The social composition is broader, and domestic tourism involves all social strata, from the richest to persons with modest (but stable) incomes * 142. Certain social categories are much more highly represented in domestic tourism than in international tourism: * families * children and teenagers * seniors * disabled persons * households with modest but stable incomes * 143. This social diversity gives rise to a large diversity in the demand, in terms of accommodation and tourism products as well as activities and destinations. * 144. DT is less geographically concentrated and is relatively better distributed throughout the national territory, with a strong presence in the region of provenance of families. * 145. Unit expenditure is markedly lower than in international tourism, especially interregional tourism, but the overall volume of expenditure is markedly higher. 2. What is its impact on the social life of a country or a region? Five types of main impacts can be mentioned: * 21. DT is much less sensitive to crises, whether economic (e.g., 2009: substitution effect), natural, health or political (e.g., 2005 civil unrest in France). It is therefore an excellent crisis shock-absorber, especially in the case of economic crises. * 22. Due to its income redistribution effect (from tourists to local populations) and its various multiplier effects all throughout the value chain, it is an excellent tool for territorial development, for example for: * zones under redevelopment: e.g., northern China, southern Poland, eastern Germany, northern France, Wales * zones of rural exodus * mountain regions (in France, extremely poor regions in the Alps at the start of the 20th century) * 23. It is an excellent instrument for easing social tensions: * by allowing social categories of modest income to gain access to holidays and rest * by preventing situations where the same people (from the same countries) are always the tourists and with the same people receiving them * 24. It can serve to launch a destination (e.g., some of the oldest resorts of European tourism; the very new resort of Mazagan, Morocco, launched in October 2009 for the domestic market) * 25. From the macroeconomic point of view, it makes it possible to amortize national spending on international tourism: * physical investments: transport, accommodation, development and protection of public spaces (examples of Languedoc, Costa del Sol, Chinese seashore resorts) * intangible investments, mainly training and quality 3. How can we develop strong domestic tourism? One caveat: There is no magic formula and much depends on the national and regional context. A second caveat: The development of domestic tourism should not be regarded as antagonistic or alternative to international tourism; these two forms of tourism are different to be sure, but they complement each other closely and one should not be neglected in favour of the other. It is nevertheless possible to identify some broad guidelines: 31. Diversifying and developing * 311. transport: * low-cost air transport: the comparative advantage of low-cost airlines vis-à  -vis â€Å"traditional† airlines has to do with reductions in ground costs: (headquarters, booking, stops) and turnaround rate: consequently, the shorter the flight, the more competitive low-cost airlines are; it is thus a means of transport that is particularly well-suited to domestic tourism * railway network and especially high-speed rail * road and highway network (e.g., French and Austrian Alps, US) * 312. accommodation * hotels: developing family-run hotels and voluntary chains of independent hotels (pooled marketing, promotion, sales and quality standards) * residences (self-catering by families) * seasonal rentals: notably by developing quality standards and encouraging the establishment of voluntary chains for sales and promotion * camping sites, by moving upmarket (e.g., Morocco) * rural inns: notably through incentives (tax or subsidy) for the renovation of old buildings (a lot of examples worldwide) * bed & breakfasts, by providing them with a legal framework that clearly distinguishes them from hotels (taxation, definition of products, quality standards) * youth hostels * categories for nature, sea and snow (avoiding the serious errors of France on the subject of safety and security regulations) * 32. Adapting accommodations to local demand: the matter of family composition, e.g., China, Europe, Arab countries. As a general rule, accommodations adapted to families are: * larger * lower: one or two storeys * allow greater autonomy: kitchens, washing machines†¦ * allow long stays (sedentary tourism) * 33. It needs consequently to address the matters of: * land costs and development; * very long-term public and semi-public financing; * tax policy * 34. Expanding the demand: this is the role of tourism for all, namely policies that consist in: * 341. Making the demand more solvent, that is, â€Å"boosting† the purchasing power of families with modest incomes through: * holiday vouchers (Italy, France, China) * specific subsidies to low-income families (France, Russia), to young people and to seniors (Spain) * preferential rates on rail transport for families, young people, seniors * 342. Subsidizing accommodations meant for social purposes: works councils, associations, local groups or governments (e.g., in Belgium, Mexico, Brazil) * 343. Developing accessibility for disabled persons. * 35. Developing structures for activity organization and promotion at the regional/provincial level and at the local level (tourism offices) This document is an adaptation of a lecture delivered during the  « Rencontre internationale sur le dà ©veloppement du tourisme domestique  » Algiers, 9 Dec. 2010

Schools as Organisations

6. 2 Explain the role of schools in national policies relating to children, young people and families. As part of the National Governments incentive to help provide backing and encouragement to practitioners in schools 2 new funding programmes were introduced by the Department for Children, Schools and Families as part f the Government Children Plan. These programmes; Every Child a Talker (ECAT) and Social and Emotional Aspects of Development (SEAD). These were launched to increase the skills of early year’s specialists and were a part of the government’s wider pledge to the education workforce development. These packages were designed to address the need for children in schools to experience a language rich setting through staff in ensuring that they work successfully with both parents and families. Through SEAD, staff in schools would gain the knowledge and understanding to help engage parents more effectively in order for them to be better prepared to support their child’s social and emotional needs. It was the abuse and ultimate death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 which prompted changes in children’s services. The Every Child Matters paper set out a national agenda and plan with the aim of providing more services that were accessible for the needs of children, young people and families which stated that schools and other child care providers must demonstrate ways that they could work towards each of the outcomes. The 5 key aims and intentions were; Be healthy: schools needed to play a leading part in health education towards children and young people which included questioning the significance of snacks and the nutritional contents of school meals, as well as enabling children to enjoy a good physical and mental health by being part of a healthy lifestyle. Stay safe: a survey among 11~16 year olds in mainstream schools claimed that almost 46% had been the victim of some form of bullying, in order to break these statistics it is vital that pupils need to feel that they are being protected in school, in order for schools to do this they must continue to make behaviour management and anti bullying an significant issue. Enjoy and achieve: in order for students to get the most out of life and develop the necessary skills for adulthood children and young people must enjoy their lives and achieve their potential. In order for schools to assist with this they must make improvements in failings across different ethnic groups and unauthorised absences that are unacceptable. Contribute: children and young people need to be involved in their community rather than involve themselves in anti social behaviour. Schools can teach children the ethics of social responsibility and a feeling of ‘belonging’ by providing link to a pupils own community and how they can become a part of it. Achieve a good standard of living: children and young people with parents who are unemployed or existing on low incomes must be encouraged to aspire to a better career and lifestyle for themselves. Schools can develop strategies to enable all students to reach their full potential. At Parkhill School we are part of a walk to school programme which encourages pupils at the school to walk rather than take other forms of transport, for every child who participates they are awarded with a different badge at the end of each month which they proudly display on their bags. We also are part of War Child International; this is a charity which works across the world to support children that are affected by war. Each Christmas the children at our school are asked to provide a shoe box filled with items that would be suitable for a child living in a war torn country. The children feel a great deal of fulfilment and happiness when they know they are helping a child and that gives them a sense of realization about children who have a lot less than themselves

Assessing the effects of evolving consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder primacy models of CSR. A case study of Marks and Spencer

In other words, it involves spending organization’s resources for the benefit of society. It is usually done directly or through a company’s foundation. In some cases, donations are in the form of an organization’s facilities, products and services. The areas covered under corporate philanthropy consist of education, health, art and environment (Council on Foundations, 1982). On the other hand, CSR or corporate social responsibility is an enterprise level program designed to bring positive change in society. The primary effect of the evolution of consumer expectation on CSR is the incorporation of this concept into corporate strategy of such organizations. Likewise, the effect on the shareholder’s model of CSR is also considerable. The incorporation of the CSR model within corporate strategy enables the shareholder to enjoy returns from the CSR program of the organization. The returns usually manifest in the form of increased sales and profits, which resul ts from the goodwill created by the CSR program (Urip, 2010). One of the distinctive features of the CSR concept is the involvement and participation of all the stakeholders including shareholders, employees, customers, supply chain partners, community and government. This feature is the central point of the stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR. According to this model, the CSR incorporates the interests of the society at both the strategic and operational level. Furthermore, this concept also entails the interaction and relationship of all the key stakeholders in the context of CSR. This means that an integral aspect of CSR is the interaction of the organization with internal and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders consist in the form of employees, top management and shareholders, whereas external stakeholders consist of government, non-government organization and community. The scope of issues that CSR covers ranges from the environment, economic and social faced by the community and society at large. The stakeholder’s primacy model on CSR also entails that CSR should be considered separate from the core operations and activities of the business. This means that CSR should be given similar importance compared to other core functions such as marketing, sales, finance and HR. However, according to this model, CSR is a voluntary concept. Nevertheless, it should be noted that changing a consumer’s expectations has made this concept more of an obligation. This is due to the fact that consumers increasingly hold the view that corporations are directly responsible for the well being of the society and, therefore, should play their due role (Fernando, 2011). 2.2. Aim: To assess the effects of evolving and changing consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder’s primacy models of CSR 2.2.1. Objectives: To understand how the evolving consumer expectations has affected the CSR programs of Marks and Spencer. To determine the changes in consumer expectations in regard to corporate philanthropy. 2.2.2. Research questions For the purpose of attaining research objective, this study will make use of following research questions: Is the CSR program of Marks and Spencer part of the organization’s corporate strategy Is the CSR program of Marks and Spencer affected by the evolving consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy What areas of society are covered by the Marks and Spencer CSR program Does Marks and Spencer’s CSR program come under stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR 3.0 Literature Review The literature reviews enable the understanding of the topic in the context of different theories. The theories, which are brought under discussion usually exists in academic journals, books and other research dissertations The literature review will enable the research to determine the effects of customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropic initiatives on an organization’s primary CSR model. However, before delineating these effects, it is imperative that a clear understanding of the meaning and scope of CSR is made. Usually CSR referred to all the activities, which are conducted by a private organization for the well-being of the general public or community. These activities can relate to different social and environmental issues. The CSR activities do not differ from each other regarding the amount spent on each activity but on the basis of the way in which an organization indulges in that CSR activity (Werther Chandler, 2010). The importance of CSR and its im plications are vital for any global or national business. As a result, the changes in the consumer expectations have assumed vital importance for the nature of organization’s CSR model. Business concern for society is not a new concept but can be traced backed many centuries.. Initially, the activities, which are now categorized as CSR, were seen as merely corporate or business philanthropy. The perception and expectation from the consumer that companies or businesses are an important part of society and, therefore, has responsibility towards society originated in last few years. This led to the development of formal concepts of CSR (Carroll, 1999). Likewise, academic and scholarly work on CSR and corporate philanthropy started in the last century, which led to the belief that CSR is an obligation of every corporate entity. Bowen, who is considered the father of the modern concept of CSR, classified CSR as those activities, which enables businesses and companies to achieve ob jectives, which are desirable for any society (Bowen, 1953). This definition is very simplistic in nature and does not cover the entire spectrum of CSR activities. Davis (1960) sees CSR as a responsibility on the part of a firm, which forces it to admit to duties, which are present in areas beyond the domain of commercial interest. Resultantly, firms will be engaging in politics, community welfare, education and health. Walton (1967) sees CSR as an activity, which will cost the organization without any material gain for the business. Therefore, such activity must be done on a voluntary basis. From this concept, it can be seen that CSR was seen as a matter of moral duty instead of something, which could generate material gain for the organization. However, this consideration has started to change as many firms expect intangible returns from their CSR initiatives. The intangible initiatives can be in the shape of goodwill and creation of a friendly image in the public eye (Louche et a l., 2010). On the other hand, the prevalence of CSR in the modern world has made it necessary for the organization to perform CSR activities. In the case by which an organization decides not to participate in CSR initiatives, it risks losing its customer base. This can be attributed to constant expectations from the consumers for socially responsible behaviour from the companies. Such consumers have increasingly become socially and environmentally conscious and support only those firms, which are involved in CSR and in the provision of sustainable products. The importance of such customers for businesses can be gauged from the recent researches, which show consumer’s preferences for socially responsible firms (Lindgreen Swaen, 2010). One such study showed that the market of those customers, who live their life according to the new concepts of health and environment, is expected to grow to 30% alone in the US (Forster, 2007). The customers are increasingly expecting a great a mount of sustainability from the corporate entities. This is one of the new trends, which have originated in the customer’s way of thinking as far as corporate philanthropy. Initially, consumers’ view any activity, intended to bring positive in the society, as part of corporate philanthropic initiative. Such initiative was considered separate and discrete from organization’s core activities, where were the provision of products and services to customers. Now, such initiative, which comes under the domain of CSR, needs to be considered a core business activity and, hence, part of organizational corporate strategy. Therefore, the primary effect of the changing and evolving expectations of corporate philanthropy on the consumers is the incorporation of CSR model in the organization’s main strategy. This incorporation will enable the organization to provide products and services, which are up to the social and environmental standards. And at the same time, it will enable the organization to launch separate but related initiatives intended to bring positive change in the society. Any organization, which fails to perform this, can risk losing customer base within the market. Therefore, the CSR model has now become an integral part of corporate strategy of all large multinational organizations (Fernando, 2011). The effects of changing consumer expectations has led to the development of the concept of ‘sustainable development’. According it is viewed as the responsibility of businesses to conduct their core activities in such manner, which will not affect the ability of the future generation to meet their basic needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). It can be seen from this concept that sustainability in the organization’s activities has now become an integral part of the customers. An organization can fulfil this expectation by integrating the economic, social and environmental consideration in its corporate strategy. This will enable it to achieve sustainability in all aspects of an organization’s operations ( (Visser et al., 2007). Another effect of evolving consumers’ expectation of corporate philanthropy on organization’s CSR model is the adoption of concept of â€Å"Triple Bottom Line† (TBL) by the organization. Ac cording to such, it is the obligation of the organization to put its focus on three main aspects. The first is related to the responsibility of economic success. Secondly, it is related to the responsibility to the environment and thirdly is related to the responsibility of the individuals and the community in general (Elkington, 1998). With this concept, the business organization has transformed itself from a primary economic entity to an organization, which is responsible for fulfilling social and environmental needs of the society alongside achieving their objective of profit generation. This change in the approach of conducting business is attributed to the evolving consumer’s expectation of corporate philanthropy. In the past, any activity on the part of the corporation for the well-being of the community was looked as an initiative taken on the part of shareholders and the high-management. However, with the emergence of CSR, such activities have come under the domain of institutions. Now all activities, taken for the improvement of society have assumed institutional shape (Gainer, 2010). It is equally important to understand the reasons, which led to the evolution of consumers’ expectations of business philanthropy. One pertinent factor responsible for the change is the increase in consumers’ awareness. Consumer awareness has gone a long way in changing the perception of business activities of the corporations. Consumers have now increasingly become aware of their rights. Moreover, this awareness is usually backed by legal and regulatory support , which increases the overall bargaining power of consumers in relation to the organizations. This has enabled the consumers to hold expectations from the corporate entities to perform their due share in the well-being of society. If any organizations fail to perform its obligations, it will not only face legal repercussions but also risk losing consumers in the market. In addition to this, h igh competition in the market is also one of the factors responsible in the shift of customers’ expectations. High forces of competition in the market have required the organization to look for new avenues to build and sustain their competitive advantage. One such technique is through the creation of goodwill within the general public. And the best method for creating such goodwill is through CSR. Furthermore, the effects of culture on CSR expectations are also considerable. For instance, according to Matten Moon (2004), in Europe, the CSR is viewed more in terms of philanthropy than the US, where it is most likely viewed as institutional activity. This difference is primarily attributed to the dissimilarity in the institutional environment and cultural values of the regions. This is the reason, why organizations usually incorporate CSR initiatives in the corporate policies and programs. On the other hand, in Europe, it is mostly viewed as an informal business activity. This shows that customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropy have not matured in Europe as it has done in the US (Baden et al., 2011). For the clear understanding of the problem, it is also important to allow comprehension of the stakeholders’ primacy model of CSR. It is not sufficient to only understand the activities but, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of all the stakeholders, who are directly and indirectly involved in it. Overall, the CSR model is focused on the improvement of society. Resultantly, it should incorporate all the values of society (Carroll, 1979). On the other hand, there is another school of thought, which views CSR as entirely aimed at addressing the issues of different stakeholders in place of the entire society. One proponent of this school of thought is Clarkson (1995). According to Clarkson (1995), the activities including CSR of any business entity are aimed at fulfilling the needs of stakeholders. According to this concept, corporations are free from any obligation concerning society. Instead, there are only responsible for the welfare of the community, which is direc tly affected by their activities. Likewise, (Maignan et al., 2005) also supports this assertion. According to (Maignan et al., 2005), businesses and corporations are responsible for satisfying economic and noneconomic needs of the stakeholders. However, it is difficult to ascertain the exact boundaries of stakeholders especially in the case of multinationals, whose activities spread to different dimensions and areas of society. Nevertheless, the stakeholder model of CSR provides a framework, which can be used to analyze the relationship of the business with the society in the context of CSR (Carroll Shabana, 2010). This theory plays more a complementary role than conflict, when viewed in the milieu of CSR. This theory allows a better understanding of relationship between principal factors involved in the provision of CSR related initiative. According to this theory, corporate units can be better understood through the relationship of different actors, which have a stake in the oper ations of the business (Friedman, 1970). This means that the objectives of any CSR initiative taken by the organization are indirectly related to the primary goal of the organization, which is profit maximization. It means any CSR activity conducted by the organization will eventually increase the customer base for the organization and will subsequently translate in the form of higher returns for the organization. This approach creates a win-win situation for all stakeholders. The community gets the benefit from the CSR activities whereas shareholders and management of the organization receive benefits in the form of increased profits (Freeman, 1984). Theoretically, this model is very effective in transforming capitalism into serving the interest of different stakeholders, excluding shareholders. Within the framework of this theory, the implications of the evolving consumer’s expectations are considerable. The new set of consumer’s belief expects the organization to wo rk for the wellbeing of actors who do not come under the category of stakeholders. As a result, it has become necessary for the organization to redefine the boundaries of stakeholders and include all those actors within society, who are not directly related to the activities of the organization. The primary implication of this for the organization is increased cost related to CSR initiatives without any translations of returns for the organization. In other words, the organization fails to achieve something tangible from such initiative. Moreover, such initiative has departed from pure CSR and has returned to the scope of corporate philanthropy. Previously, only stakeholder’s interest was considered in the CSR program, which is regarded as vital for the existence and success of the organization. This concept also takes into account the importance of power dependent relationships, which suggests that an organization customizes its CSR program according to the power enjoyed by certain stakeholder groups over the firm (Pirsch, 2007). 4.0 Methodology 4.1 Research approach: The research approach adopted for this thesis is the case-based approach. The case study approach will provide profound understanding of the effects of changing consumer’s expectations on an organization’s CSR models. The case study approach is preferred because it allows the collection of in-depth information, which can be comprehensively analyzed in order to reach definite conclusions (Kumar, n.d.). This approach will also enable understanding of the problem in isolation, which is not possible with any other research approach (Bergh Ketchen, 2009). As a result, a comprehensive study of the case will be conducted, which will enable identification and analysis of the factors affecting the consumer expectation of corporate philanthropy on the stakeholder primacy model of CSR. Due to the nature of the case study, the research approach will be primarily qualitative in nature. This approach is ideal because it allows clear comprehension of the all the dimensions of the top ic under discussion (Maxwell, 2005). Therefore, the first stage of this research will consists of in-depth research and review of the relevant literature. The stage will also consist of the study of primacy models of CSR in the context of organizational strategy. This approach will enable the fulfilment of the objective of ascertaining the effects of fluctuating consumer’s expectations on the stakeholder primacy models of CSR. 4.2 Case selection This research will study the case of Marks and Spencer as a model organization for understanding and concluding the effects of evolving customer’s expectation on organization’s dominant models of CSR. The case study approach is ideal in the present scenario because it will allow the research to investigate the problem while retaining the holistic point of view, which is necessary for accurate results (Henn, 2009). The reason Marks and Spencer is selected rests in its long history of corporate philanthropy in the shape of CSR. Likewise, it is a large organization, which makes it representative for all other organizations. This case is also appropriate as it will lead the research to accurate theory development. It should be noted here that the fact the each business unit of Mark and Spenser develops its own CSR strategy makes it relevant for this research. This case will also allow the understanding and identification of the issues concerning the CSR model of Marks and S penser. CSR has an integral position in the organization of Marks and Spenser. This can be attributed to the founders of MS who intended to build sustainable and mutually beneficial relationships with all stakeholders including the community and employees. This model of CSR was implemented with the belief that it will ensure long-term success for the organization. MS launched a number of initiatives under its CSR model relating to education, health, environment and employability. This model has led to the creation of trustworthy images of the company in the general public and the community (Hallbauer, 2008). 4.3 Sample size This research will use a sample of 25 to 40 respondents. This size is ideal to reach a representative conclusion and at the same time eliminates bias in the research. The information from the respondents from the sample will provide additional data and perspective to the information derived from literature and theory review. 4.4 Data collection Primary data: In order to ascertain the effects of evolving customer’s expectations of corporate philanthropy, a large chunk of data will be collected from comprehensive primary research. The case study approach will allow triangulation of data from multiple sources, which will further allow a balanced understating of the problem under discussion. The primary data will be collected from semi structured interviews, which will provide insight into the thought process of the respondents being interviewed. The respondents will include the customers alongside employees of the organization, which will permit an incorporation of the view points of both sides. The questions for the interview are divided according to the respondent type. The following tentative and semi structured questions will be presented the customers: What areas should be targeted in the organization’s CSR strategy Have you witnessed any changes in the the CSR activities of the organizations in last 5 years Do you consider corporate philanthropy an integral responsibility of the organization On the other hand, managerial staff of the organization will be asked to follow main questions: How many changes have taken place in the scope of CSR activities of the organization How much of this change reflects the changes in the customer expectations from the organization’s CSR model How much organization’s philanthropy has been transformed into formalized CSR system Using these questions, this study will collect the relevant data, which will later be used in collaboration with the literature review to address the concerned topic. Secondary data: This research study will also make use of a variety of sources of secondary data alongside primary data, collected from interviews. The secondary data will consist of the website and annual reports of the concerned organization. In addition to this, academic journals and books relating to the topic will also come under the purview of this research. The purpose of the secondary data collection is to determine the effects of evolving customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropy on the organization’s primary CSR model. In addition to this, external reports originating from third party sources, such as the government, will also be used to provide all-encompassing analysis of the topic. The secondary data will enable a balanced understanding of the organization’s CSR model in the wake of evolving customer expectations from corporate philanthropy. 4.5 Pilot study The main objective of the pilot study was to ensure that the terminologies used in the research methodology are correct. As a result, the pilot study was conducted in the shape of interviews from a narrow range of respondents. The method used for the pilot study was a face-to-face to interview. This method enabled direct feedback from the respondents. In addition to this, the method also allowed the interviewer to ask relevant and pertinent questions, which were not present in the question guide, for the sole purpose of clarity. 4.6 Data analysis The data collected from the interview will consist of qualitative data. Therefore, it will not be possible to apply statistical principles and techniques, which can be applied to quantitative data, to extract trends and patterns. As a result, the information collected from interviews will be analyzed to deduce normative patterns for further understanding. However, for the purpose of categorization, the data will be coded and compared according to the research questions. The purpose of this activity is to identify any gaps in the research. In the case of identification of certain gaps, extended data collection will be conducted to eliminate any deficiencies. Moreover, the comparisons will also lead to the elimination of discrepancies before the final stage, when this data will be used to derive concrete findings. The main objective of the data analysis is to find the different dimensions of the topic under discussion. As the data in question primarily consists of primary information, it will provide more realistic picture of all aspects of the problem. Furthermore, this data analysis could also be used with the literature review, which will allow an incorporation of primary data with the theory development in the research finding stage (Miles Huberman, 1994). 5.0 Conclusion The purpose of this research is to assess the effects of the evolving customer expectations in regard to corporate philanthropy on the stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR. For this purpose, the case of Marks and Spencer is selected. Marks and Spencer has a long history of CSR and, therefore, provides a representative model for research study. This research will make use of qualitative data for the purpose of analysis and deriving conclusions. The qualitative data will provide normative insight into the problem, which will enable accurate assessment of the problem under discussion. This research will make use of both primary and secondary data. The primary data will be collected from semi structured interview, which will be conducted from the sample of 25 to 40 respondents. The respondents are divided into two categories in the form of consumers and employees of the said discussion. The data collected will be used in collaboration with secondary data. The secondary data will con sist of academic journals, books, websites and external reports. The secondary data will enable the analysis of primary data in a more comprehensive and balanced manner. With this research methodology, the research study intends to achieve its objective, which is to assess the effects of evolving and changing consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder primacy models of CSR. 6.0 References Baden, Tonne Meyer, 2011. The effect of context and type of corporate philanthropy on moral capital. Journal of Business Ethics . Bergh, D.D. Ketchen, D.J., 2009. Research methodology in strategy and management. Emerald Group Publishing. Bowen, H., 1953. Social responsibility of the businessman. New York: Harper Row. Carroll, A., 1979. A Three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 4(4), pp.497-505. Carroll, A., 1999. Corporate Social Responsibility: Evolution of a defnitional construct. Business and Society, 39, p.268–295. Carroll, A.B. Shabana, K.M., 2010. The business case for corporate social responsibility: A review of concepts, research and practice. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), p.85–105. Clarkson, M., 1995. The Toronto conference: Refections on stakeholder theory. Business and Society, 33(1), p.82–131. Council on Foundations, 1982. Corporate philanthropy: Philosophy, management, trends, future, background. Council on Foundations. Davis, K., 1960. Can business afford to ignore social responsibilities. California Management Review, 2(3), p.70–76. Elkington, J., 1998. Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st Century business. Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers. Fernando, A., 2011. Business environment. Pearson Education India. Forster, T., 2004. Die grunen Yuppies. Werben Verkaufen, 51, p.45. Freeman, R., 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder perspective. Boston: Pitman Publishing Inc. Friedman, M., 1962. Capitalism and freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gainer, B., 2010. Corporate social responsibility. Third Sector Research, pp.187-200. Hallbauer, S., 2008. Retail marketing and new retail idea – Marks Spencer. GRIN Verlag. Henn, S.K., 2009. Business ethics: A case study approach. John Wiley Sons. Kumar, R., n.d. Research methodology. APH Publishing. Lindgreen, A. Swaen, V., 2010. Corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), pp.1-7. Louche, C., Idowu, S.O. Filho, W.L., 2010. Innovative Csr: From risk management to value creation. Greenleaf Publishing. Maignan, I., Ferrell, O. Ferrell, L., 2005. A stakeholder model for implementing social responsibility in marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 29(9/10), p.956–977. Matten, D. Moon, J., 2004. Implicit and explicit CSR: A conceptual framework for understanding CSR in Europe. ICCSR Research Paper Series, (29). Maxwell, J.A., 2005. Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Sage Publications. Miles, M.B. Huberman, A.M., 1994. Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage Publications. Pirsch, J., 2007. A framework for understanding corporate social responsibility programs as a continuum: An exploratory study. Journal of Business Ethics, 70(2), pp.125-40. Urip, S., 2010. CSR strategies: Corporate Social Responsibility for a competitive edge in emerging markets. John Wiley Sons. Visser, W., Matten, D. Pohl, M., 2007. The A to Z of Corporate Social Responsibility: A complete reference guide to concepts, codes and organisations. London: Wiley. Walton, C., 1967. Corporate social responsibilities. Belmont, CA, USA.: Wadsworth. Werther, W.B. Chandler, D., 2010. Strategic corporate social responsibility: Stakeholders in a global environment. SAGE. World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Assessing the effects of evolving consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder primacy models of CSR. A case study of Marks and Spencer In other words, it involves spending organization’s resources for the benefit of society. It is usually done directly or through a company’s foundation. In some cases, donations are in the form of an organization’s facilities, products and services. The areas covered under corporate philanthropy consist of education, health, art and environment (Council on Foundations, 1982). On the other hand, CSR or corporate social responsibility is an enterprise level program designed to bring positive change in society. The primary effect of the evolution of consumer expectation on CSR is the incorporation of this concept into corporate strategy of such organizations. Likewise, the effect on the shareholder’s model of CSR is also considerable. The incorporation of the CSR model within corporate strategy enables the shareholder to enjoy returns from the CSR program of the organization. The returns usually manifest in the form of increased sales and profits, which resul ts from the goodwill created by the CSR program (Urip, 2010). One of the distinctive features of the CSR concept is the involvement and participation of all the stakeholders including shareholders, employees, customers, supply chain partners, community and government. This feature is the central point of the stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR. According to this model, the CSR incorporates the interests of the society at both the strategic and operational level. Furthermore, this concept also entails the interaction and relationship of all the key stakeholders in the context of CSR. This means that an integral aspect of CSR is the interaction of the organization with internal and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders consist in the form of employees, top management and shareholders, whereas external stakeholders consist of government, non-government organization and community. The scope of issues that CSR covers ranges from the environment, economic and social faced by the community and society at large. The stakeholder’s primacy model on CSR also entails that CSR should be considered separate from the core operations and activities of the business. This means that CSR should be given similar importance compared to other core functions such as marketing, sales, finance and HR. However, according to this model, CSR is a voluntary concept. Nevertheless, it should be noted that changing a consumer’s expectations has made this concept more of an obligation. This is due to the fact that consumers increasingly hold the view that corporations are directly responsible for the well being of the society and, therefore, should play their due role (Fernando, 2011). 2.2. Aim: To assess the effects of evolving and changing consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder’s primacy models of CSR 2.2.1. Objectives: To understand how the evolving consumer expectations has affected the CSR programs of Marks and Spencer. To determine the changes in consumer expectations in regard to corporate philanthropy. 2.2.2. Research questions For the purpose of attaining research objective, this study will make use of following research questions: Is the CSR program of Marks and Spencer part of the organization’s corporate strategy Is the CSR program of Marks and Spencer affected by the evolving consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy What areas of society are covered by the Marks and Spencer CSR program Does Marks and Spencer’s CSR program come under stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR 3.0 Literature Review The literature reviews enable the understanding of the topic in the context of different theories. The theories, which are brought under discussion usually exists in academic journals, books and other research dissertations The literature review will enable the research to determine the effects of customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropic initiatives on an organization’s primary CSR model. However, before delineating these effects, it is imperative that a clear understanding of the meaning and scope of CSR is made. Usually CSR referred to all the activities, which are conducted by a private organization for the well-being of the general public or community. These activities can relate to different social and environmental issues. The CSR activities do not differ from each other regarding the amount spent on each activity but on the basis of the way in which an organization indulges in that CSR activity (Werther Chandler, 2010). The importance of CSR and its im plications are vital for any global or national business. As a result, the changes in the consumer expectations have assumed vital importance for the nature of organization’s CSR model. Business concern for society is not a new concept but can be traced backed many centuries.. Initially, the activities, which are now categorized as CSR, were seen as merely corporate or business philanthropy. The perception and expectation from the consumer that companies or businesses are an important part of society and, therefore, has responsibility towards society originated in last few years. This led to the development of formal concepts of CSR (Carroll, 1999). Likewise, academic and scholarly work on CSR and corporate philanthropy started in the last century, which led to the belief that CSR is an obligation of every corporate entity. Bowen, who is considered the father of the modern concept of CSR, classified CSR as those activities, which enables businesses and companies to achieve ob jectives, which are desirable for any society (Bowen, 1953). This definition is very simplistic in nature and does not cover the entire spectrum of CSR activities. Davis (1960) sees CSR as a responsibility on the part of a firm, which forces it to admit to duties, which are present in areas beyond the domain of commercial interest. Resultantly, firms will be engaging in politics, community welfare, education and health. Walton (1967) sees CSR as an activity, which will cost the organization without any material gain for the business. Therefore, such activity must be done on a voluntary basis. From this concept, it can be seen that CSR was seen as a matter of moral duty instead of something, which could generate material gain for the organization. However, this consideration has started to change as many firms expect intangible returns from their CSR initiatives. The intangible initiatives can be in the shape of goodwill and creation of a friendly image in the public eye (Louche et a l., 2010). On the other hand, the prevalence of CSR in the modern world has made it necessary for the organization to perform CSR activities. In the case by which an organization decides not to participate in CSR initiatives, it risks losing its customer base. This can be attributed to constant expectations from the consumers for socially responsible behaviour from the companies. Such consumers have increasingly become socially and environmentally conscious and support only those firms, which are involved in CSR and in the provision of sustainable products. The importance of such customers for businesses can be gauged from the recent researches, which show consumer’s preferences for socially responsible firms (Lindgreen Swaen, 2010). One such study showed that the market of those customers, who live their life according to the new concepts of health and environment, is expected to grow to 30% alone in the US (Forster, 2007). The customers are increasingly expecting a great a mount of sustainability from the corporate entities. This is one of the new trends, which have originated in the customer’s way of thinking as far as corporate philanthropy. Initially, consumers’ view any activity, intended to bring positive in the society, as part of corporate philanthropic initiative. Such initiative was considered separate and discrete from organization’s core activities, where were the provision of products and services to customers. Now, such initiative, which comes under the domain of CSR, needs to be considered a core business activity and, hence, part of organizational corporate strategy. Therefore, the primary effect of the changing and evolving expectations of corporate philanthropy on the consumers is the incorporation of CSR model in the organization’s main strategy. This incorporation will enable the organization to provide products and services, which are up to the social and environmental standards. And at the same time, it will enable the organization to launch separate but related initiatives intended to bring positive change in the society. Any organization, which fails to perform this, can risk losing customer base within the market. Therefore, the CSR model has now become an integral part of corporate strategy of all large multinational organizations (Fernando, 2011). The effects of changing consumer expectations has led to the development of the concept of ‘sustainable development’. According it is viewed as the responsibility of businesses to conduct their core activities in such manner, which will not affect the ability of the future generation to meet their basic needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). It can be seen from this concept that sustainability in the organization’s activities has now become an integral part of the customers. An organization can fulfil this expectation by integrating the economic, social and environmental consideration in its corporate strategy. This will enable it to achieve sustainability in all aspects of an organization’s operations ( (Visser et al., 2007). Another effect of evolving consumers’ expectation of corporate philanthropy on organization’s CSR model is the adoption of concept of â€Å"Triple Bottom Line† (TBL) by the organization. Ac cording to such, it is the obligation of the organization to put its focus on three main aspects. The first is related to the responsibility of economic success. Secondly, it is related to the responsibility to the environment and thirdly is related to the responsibility of the individuals and the community in general (Elkington, 1998). With this concept, the business organization has transformed itself from a primary economic entity to an organization, which is responsible for fulfilling social and environmental needs of the society alongside achieving their objective of profit generation. This change in the approach of conducting business is attributed to the evolving consumer’s expectation of corporate philanthropy. In the past, any activity on the part of the corporation for the well-being of the community was looked as an initiative taken on the part of shareholders and the high-management. However, with the emergence of CSR, such activities have come under the domain of institutions. Now all activities, taken for the improvement of society have assumed institutional shape (Gainer, 2010). It is equally important to understand the reasons, which led to the evolution of consumers’ expectations of business philanthropy. One pertinent factor responsible for the change is the increase in consumers’ awareness. Consumer awareness has gone a long way in changing the perception of business activities of the corporations. Consumers have now increasingly become aware of their rights. Moreover, this awareness is usually backed by legal and regulatory support , which increases the overall bargaining power of consumers in relation to the organizations. This has enabled the consumers to hold expectations from the corporate entities to perform their due share in the well-being of society. If any organizations fail to perform its obligations, it will not only face legal repercussions but also risk losing consumers in the market. In addition to this, h igh competition in the market is also one of the factors responsible in the shift of customers’ expectations. High forces of competition in the market have required the organization to look for new avenues to build and sustain their competitive advantage. One such technique is through the creation of goodwill within the general public. And the best method for creating such goodwill is through CSR. Furthermore, the effects of culture on CSR expectations are also considerable. For instance, according to Matten Moon (2004), in Europe, the CSR is viewed more in terms of philanthropy than the US, where it is most likely viewed as institutional activity. This difference is primarily attributed to the dissimilarity in the institutional environment and cultural values of the regions. This is the reason, why organizations usually incorporate CSR initiatives in the corporate policies and programs. On the other hand, in Europe, it is mostly viewed as an informal business activity. This shows that customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropy have not matured in Europe as it has done in the US (Baden et al., 2011). For the clear understanding of the problem, it is also important to allow comprehension of the stakeholders’ primacy model of CSR. It is not sufficient to only understand the activities but, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of all the stakeholders, who are directly and indirectly involved in it. Overall, the CSR model is focused on the improvement of society. Resultantly, it should incorporate all the values of society (Carroll, 1979). On the other hand, there is another school of thought, which views CSR as entirely aimed at addressing the issues of different stakeholders in place of the entire society. One proponent of this school of thought is Clarkson (1995). According to Clarkson (1995), the activities including CSR of any business entity are aimed at fulfilling the needs of stakeholders. According to this concept, corporations are free from any obligation concerning society. Instead, there are only responsible for the welfare of the community, which is direc tly affected by their activities. Likewise, (Maignan et al., 2005) also supports this assertion. According to (Maignan et al., 2005), businesses and corporations are responsible for satisfying economic and noneconomic needs of the stakeholders. However, it is difficult to ascertain the exact boundaries of stakeholders especially in the case of multinationals, whose activities spread to different dimensions and areas of society. Nevertheless, the stakeholder model of CSR provides a framework, which can be used to analyze the relationship of the business with the society in the context of CSR (Carroll Shabana, 2010). This theory plays more a complementary role than conflict, when viewed in the milieu of CSR. This theory allows a better understanding of relationship between principal factors involved in the provision of CSR related initiative. According to this theory, corporate units can be better understood through the relationship of different actors, which have a stake in the oper ations of the business (Friedman, 1970). This means that the objectives of any CSR initiative taken by the organization are indirectly related to the primary goal of the organization, which is profit maximization. It means any CSR activity conducted by the organization will eventually increase the customer base for the organization and will subsequently translate in the form of higher returns for the organization. This approach creates a win-win situation for all stakeholders. The community gets the benefit from the CSR activities whereas shareholders and management of the organization receive benefits in the form of increased profits (Freeman, 1984). Theoretically, this model is very effective in transforming capitalism into serving the interest of different stakeholders, excluding shareholders. Within the framework of this theory, the implications of the evolving consumer’s expectations are considerable. The new set of consumer’s belief expects the organization to wo rk for the wellbeing of actors who do not come under the category of stakeholders. As a result, it has become necessary for the organization to redefine the boundaries of stakeholders and include all those actors within society, who are not directly related to the activities of the organization. The primary implication of this for the organization is increased cost related to CSR initiatives without any translations of returns for the organization. In other words, the organization fails to achieve something tangible from such initiative. Moreover, such initiative has departed from pure CSR and has returned to the scope of corporate philanthropy. Previously, only stakeholder’s interest was considered in the CSR program, which is regarded as vital for the existence and success of the organization. This concept also takes into account the importance of power dependent relationships, which suggests that an organization customizes its CSR program according to the power enjoyed by certain stakeholder groups over the firm (Pirsch, 2007). 4.0 Methodology 4.1 Research approach: The research approach adopted for this thesis is the case-based approach. The case study approach will provide profound understanding of the effects of changing consumer’s expectations on an organization’s CSR models. The case study approach is preferred because it allows the collection of in-depth information, which can be comprehensively analyzed in order to reach definite conclusions (Kumar, n.d.). This approach will also enable understanding of the problem in isolation, which is not possible with any other research approach (Bergh Ketchen, 2009). As a result, a comprehensive study of the case will be conducted, which will enable identification and analysis of the factors affecting the consumer expectation of corporate philanthropy on the stakeholder primacy model of CSR. Due to the nature of the case study, the research approach will be primarily qualitative in nature. This approach is ideal because it allows clear comprehension of the all the dimensions of the top ic under discussion (Maxwell, 2005). Therefore, the first stage of this research will consists of in-depth research and review of the relevant literature. The stage will also consist of the study of primacy models of CSR in the context of organizational strategy. This approach will enable the fulfilment of the objective of ascertaining the effects of fluctuating consumer’s expectations on the stakeholder primacy models of CSR. 4.2 Case selection This research will study the case of Marks and Spencer as a model organization for understanding and concluding the effects of evolving customer’s expectation on organization’s dominant models of CSR. The case study approach is ideal in the present scenario because it will allow the research to investigate the problem while retaining the holistic point of view, which is necessary for accurate results (Henn, 2009). The reason Marks and Spencer is selected rests in its long history of corporate philanthropy in the shape of CSR. Likewise, it is a large organization, which makes it representative for all other organizations. This case is also appropriate as it will lead the research to accurate theory development. It should be noted here that the fact the each business unit of Mark and Spenser develops its own CSR strategy makes it relevant for this research. This case will also allow the understanding and identification of the issues concerning the CSR model of Marks and S penser. CSR has an integral position in the organization of Marks and Spenser. This can be attributed to the founders of MS who intended to build sustainable and mutually beneficial relationships with all stakeholders including the community and employees. This model of CSR was implemented with the belief that it will ensure long-term success for the organization. MS launched a number of initiatives under its CSR model relating to education, health, environment and employability. This model has led to the creation of trustworthy images of the company in the general public and the community (Hallbauer, 2008). 4.3 Sample size This research will use a sample of 25 to 40 respondents. This size is ideal to reach a representative conclusion and at the same time eliminates bias in the research. The information from the respondents from the sample will provide additional data and perspective to the information derived from literature and theory review. 4.4 Data collection Primary data: In order to ascertain the effects of evolving customer’s expectations of corporate philanthropy, a large chunk of data will be collected from comprehensive primary research. The case study approach will allow triangulation of data from multiple sources, which will further allow a balanced understating of the problem under discussion. The primary data will be collected from semi structured interviews, which will provide insight into the thought process of the respondents being interviewed. The respondents will include the customers alongside employees of the organization, which will permit an incorporation of the view points of both sides. The questions for the interview are divided according to the respondent type. The following tentative and semi structured questions will be presented the customers: What areas should be targeted in the organization’s CSR strategy Have you witnessed any changes in the the CSR activities of the organizations in last 5 years Do you consider corporate philanthropy an integral responsibility of the organization On the other hand, managerial staff of the organization will be asked to follow main questions: How many changes have taken place in the scope of CSR activities of the organization How much of this change reflects the changes in the customer expectations from the organization’s CSR model How much organization’s philanthropy has been transformed into formalized CSR system Using these questions, this study will collect the relevant data, which will later be used in collaboration with the literature review to address the concerned topic. Secondary data: This research study will also make use of a variety of sources of secondary data alongside primary data, collected from interviews. The secondary data will consist of the website and annual reports of the concerned organization. In addition to this, academic journals and books relating to the topic will also come under the purview of this research. The purpose of the secondary data collection is to determine the effects of evolving customers’ expectations of corporate philanthropy on the organization’s primary CSR model. In addition to this, external reports originating from third party sources, such as the government, will also be used to provide all-encompassing analysis of the topic. The secondary data will enable a balanced understanding of the organization’s CSR model in the wake of evolving customer expectations from corporate philanthropy. 4.5 Pilot study The main objective of the pilot study was to ensure that the terminologies used in the research methodology are correct. As a result, the pilot study was conducted in the shape of interviews from a narrow range of respondents. The method used for the pilot study was a face-to-face to interview. This method enabled direct feedback from the respondents. In addition to this, the method also allowed the interviewer to ask relevant and pertinent questions, which were not present in the question guide, for the sole purpose of clarity. 4.6 Data analysis The data collected from the interview will consist of qualitative data. Therefore, it will not be possible to apply statistical principles and techniques, which can be applied to quantitative data, to extract trends and patterns. As a result, the information collected from interviews will be analyzed to deduce normative patterns for further understanding. However, for the purpose of categorization, the data will be coded and compared according to the research questions. The purpose of this activity is to identify any gaps in the research. In the case of identification of certain gaps, extended data collection will be conducted to eliminate any deficiencies. Moreover, the comparisons will also lead to the elimination of discrepancies before the final stage, when this data will be used to derive concrete findings. The main objective of the data analysis is to find the different dimensions of the topic under discussion. As the data in question primarily consists of primary information, it will provide more realistic picture of all aspects of the problem. Furthermore, this data analysis could also be used with the literature review, which will allow an incorporation of primary data with the theory development in the research finding stage (Miles Huberman, 1994). 5.0 Conclusion The purpose of this research is to assess the effects of the evolving customer expectations in regard to corporate philanthropy on the stakeholder’s primacy model of CSR. For this purpose, the case of Marks and Spencer is selected. Marks and Spencer has a long history of CSR and, therefore, provides a representative model for research study. This research will make use of qualitative data for the purpose of analysis and deriving conclusions. The qualitative data will provide normative insight into the problem, which will enable accurate assessment of the problem under discussion. This research will make use of both primary and secondary data. The primary data will be collected from semi structured interview, which will be conducted from the sample of 25 to 40 respondents. The respondents are divided into two categories in the form of consumers and employees of the said discussion. The data collected will be used in collaboration with secondary data. The secondary data will con sist of academic journals, books, websites and external reports. The secondary data will enable the analysis of primary data in a more comprehensive and balanced manner. With this research methodology, the research study intends to achieve its objective, which is to assess the effects of evolving and changing consumer expectations of corporate philanthropy on the shareholder and stakeholder primacy models of CSR. 6.0 References Baden, Tonne Meyer, 2011. The effect of context and type of corporate philanthropy on moral capital. Journal of Business Ethics . Bergh, D.D. Ketchen, D.J., 2009. Research methodology in strategy and management. Emerald Group Publishing. Bowen, H., 1953. Social responsibility of the businessman. New York: Harper Row. Carroll, A., 1979. A Three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 4(4), pp.497-505. Carroll, A., 1999. Corporate Social Responsibility: Evolution of a defnitional construct. Business and Society, 39, p.268–295. Carroll, A.B. Shabana, K.M., 2010. The business case for corporate social responsibility: A review of concepts, research and practice. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), p.85–105. Clarkson, M., 1995. The Toronto conference: Refections on stakeholder theory. Business and Society, 33(1), p.82–131. Council on Foundations, 1982. Corporate philanthropy: Philosophy, management, trends, future, background. Council on Foundations. Davis, K., 1960. Can business afford to ignore social responsibilities. California Management Review, 2(3), p.70–76. Elkington, J., 1998. Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st Century business. Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers. Fernando, A., 2011. Business environment. Pearson Education India. Forster, T., 2004. Die grunen Yuppies. Werben Verkaufen, 51, p.45. Freeman, R., 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder perspective. Boston: Pitman Publishing Inc. Friedman, M., 1962. Capitalism and freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gainer, B., 2010. Corporate social responsibility. Third Sector Research, pp.187-200. Hallbauer, S., 2008. Retail marketing and new retail idea – Marks Spencer. GRIN Verlag. Henn, S.K., 2009. Business ethics: A case study approach. John Wiley Sons. Kumar, R., n.d. Research methodology. APH Publishing. Lindgreen, A. Swaen, V., 2010. Corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), pp.1-7. Louche, C., Idowu, S.O. Filho, W.L., 2010. Innovative Csr: From risk management to value creation. Greenleaf Publishing. Maignan, I., Ferrell, O. Ferrell, L., 2005. A stakeholder model for implementing social responsibility in marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 29(9/10), p.956–977. Matten, D. Moon, J., 2004. Implicit and explicit CSR: A conceptual framework for understanding CSR in Europe. ICCSR Research Paper Series, (29). Maxwell, J.A., 2005. Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Sage Publications. Miles, M.B. Huberman, A.M., 1994. Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage Publications. Pirsch, J., 2007. A framework for understanding corporate social responsibility programs as a continuum: An exploratory study. Journal of Business Ethics, 70(2), pp.125-40. Urip, S., 2010. CSR strategies: Corporate Social Responsibility for a competitive edge in emerging markets. John Wiley Sons. Visser, W., Matten, D. Pohl, M., 2007. The A to Z of Corporate Social Responsibility: A complete reference guide to concepts, codes and organisations. London: Wiley. Walton, C., 1967. Corporate social responsibilities. Belmont, CA, USA.: Wadsworth. Werther, W.B. Chandler, D., 2010. Strategic corporate social responsibility: Stakeholders in a global environment. SAGE. World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Pitfalls and Prospects in Partnership - Article Example This essay will explain and analyze the pitfalls and prospects in Partnership in Probation Programmes for substance misusing offenders. Based on researches crimes are usually committed by those who are under the influence of drugs. The article of Judith Rumgay and Sharon Cowan has presented the effectivity of partnership in the probation programmes. If the probation service is to play significant roles in working with problem drug users, this will inevitably involve more partnership work with drug services. The aim of the article is to present the Pitfalls and prospects in partnership in probation programme for substance misusing offenders. Impact on inter-agency relationships is beginning. Home office directions to probation services are forging financial partnerships with voluntary sector organisations. For the past ten years the probation services has been increasingly working in conjunction with other agencies. The probation services are being pressured to work with criminally involved problem drug users. The Advisory Council for the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD, 1991) made specific recommendations about probation service delivery. In addition, the 1991 Criminal Justice Act revised the statutory provision for the treatment of drug- (and alcohol-) misusing offenders within a probation order. The authors report on an ongoing study of partnerships between probation services and substance misuse agencies in England and Wales. Rumgay and Cowan compare the expectations of partnership as revealed in policy and management perspectives with the experience of probation officers and drug/alcohol workers involved in projects at pract ice level. The authors compare the expectations of partnership as revealed in policy and management perspective with the experience of probation officers and drug/alcohol workers involved in projects at practice level. The following differences between successful and problematic partnerships are explored and the question is asked as to how far inter-agency relationships are influenced by the additional factor of financial contracts for the services of voluntary agencies. Statutory and Voluntary agency partnerships in community supervision of offenders are considered with particular reference to issues in compulsion and enforcement. Discussion The involvement of private and public sector in the development of a new probation services is important. The probation service supports and monitors offenders in the community, oversees the implementation of Community Sentences, administers a range of Offender Behaviour Programmes and provides a service to the courts where pre sentence reports are required. It works in partnership with Prison Service, the Police, the Drugs Intervention Programme and the Youth Offending Team and at a strategic level with the local authority and other NGO's. The article provides information on how the service is being rendered to the offender. NGO group such as the staff of voluntary sector housing providers and employment and training agencies are embedded at a local level and there are established links with services specialising in mental health and alcohol. The aim to reduce

The question of the past how does it influence the future and the Essay

The question of the past how does it influence the future and the present , can we change it what is the meaning of history in o - Essay Example Past events and experiences designs and shapes our present feelings, personality traits and present manifested behavior, (Darnton 123). All the experiences that people have been through during childhood dramatically influence the present and future life. Ones past constantly affect his present and will keep influencing his present and future as long as one is not aware of the linkage between his past, present and future. In fact, some psychoanalysts and psychologists argue that one’s present life is a product of the past events, experiences and behavior. Early memories of childhood are the foundation from which most of the people begin to form their beliefs, norms and value about the universe. For instance, if a young child believed that his family is according extra attention and care to his younger brother then he may grow with the misconception that his parents adore his younger brother than him. This past event influence the life of this child later on, because the child w ill grow with the belief that someone else is better preferred over him. When that boy matures and marries, he might begin thinking that the wife is infidel whenever she associates or smiles to another man. In this case, the initial believe that developed during childhood influenced the man’s perception of life. ... In terms of the experiences, people made decisions concerning such experiences that they consequently carry forward with them. In fact, people project such experiences into their tomorrow and expect such dreams, decisions, thoughts and beliefs to continue being real, (Darnton 128). For instance thoughts such as â€Å"I am good for nothing, they don’t love me, I am ugly† when people project these thoughts out into their future - with expectations of them being true in the present and future – people perpetuate themselves being the same people they believe to be tomorrow. In other words, they recreate the similar experiences over time, proving to themselves that they are indeed, that person of the past. Times is must spend and slowly and steadily running. This is the steadiest progress that one can speak about -time. Thus, each moment of an individuals’ life is exactly a yesterday’s time. When we were born, we began this journey of life at zero, and n ow several decades of our lifetime are spend. Thus, people definitely have a history, a past, indeed. Reflecting back at the past, we discover some happy moments and other unhappy moments. The past only makes a different through one’s perception of the current and future world around him. The past defines one’s ways of perceiving the current and the tomorrow’s world. It shapes our expectations, behavior, and values of the world and events taking place now and in the future. Therefore, it is evident that one’s past life increasingly affects his thoughts, views and choices that he makes in the current life and for next life to come. Can we change the past? As earlier

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 26

Education - Essay Example The author uses the social class designation of schools to emphasize the point that education in America does not have a standard measure. There are those who are more advantaged than others. The same is reflected in the employment sector. The school that one went to determines their performance and, therefore, their chance of getting a well-paying job. Children from poor backgrounds end up performing poorly and do petty jobs latter in their life. The education system has helped to progress the social inequality in America where the rich get richer, and the poor continue passing on poverty across the generations. â€Å"In the middle-class school, work is getting the right answer. If one accumulates enough correct answers, one gets a good grade†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Colombo, Robert, & Bonnie 180). From this statement, it is clear that education in the United States does not focus on skills acquisition. Getting the right answer, regardless of how one gets it, is enough to give one a good grade. However, children are also taught to learn to explain things and think independently. Even after getting the right answer, one must be able to explain to the teacher how they arrived at the answer. This means that one cannot just copy the answer in order to pass examinations. The education system encourages students to get answers only from their books and their teachers. In other words, teachers are central pillars of the American education system to enhance its success. The American education system also focuses on the acquisition of language skills by the students. Children should â€Å"learn to speak properly, to write business letters and thank-you letters, and to understand what nouns and verbs†¦.† (Colombo, Robert, & Bonnie 182). The emphasis of language in the American education system is important in the public sector since communication skills are essential in the workplace. Language also enables the students to do well in other subjects since they are

Country cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Country cultures - Essay Example He conducted his research amongst employees of IBM which he believed had a national representation of all cultures. In this discussion, I am going to discuss Hofstede’s approach to country cultures using his proposed model. First, there is the power or distance dimension. This dimension addresses the extent of inequality in the society and the level of acceptance in a community without power. In this dimension, when there is a high score of power/distance (PD) it implies that the community acknowledges unequal dispersion of power in the society and that people accept their placement as dictated by running systems. A low indication of PD sends signals that power is well distributed among members of a community and that people perceive themselves as equals. In relation to Canada, the PDI is approximately 40 according to Hofstede statistics. This is slightly lower than fifty percent implying that there is unequal distribution of power though not to a large extent. The PDI of China is 80 which indicate existence of high levels of unequal distribution of power compared to Canada. The second indicator is Individualism (IDV) which refers to the level at which people maintain ties with others in the community. A big score of IDV implies that there is loose bonding among individuals in the community. In countries which are characterized by a high IDV, there is low indication of interpersonal connection among people and people shy away from sharing except for immediate family members and friends (Hofstede 101). A community that has got low IDV indicates that people have strong cohesion among themselves. I addition, people respect and value each other. Canada’s IDV index is placed at eighty percent which is high score. This is an indication that there exists loose bonding among people in Canada compared to countries like China which has a score of 20. This shows that bonding among Chinese people is high compared to Canadians. Masculinity (MAS)

Omnivores Dilemma - A Natural History of Four Meals is a Nonfiction Essay

Omnivores Dilemma - A Natural History of Four Meals is a Nonfiction Book by Michael Pollan - Essay Example The book illustrates the American way of living from the source to the final meal that is eaten. From an economic viewpoint, there are many shortcomings of the book worth noting, such as in the Pollan’s self financed meals; he only focuses on what is before his eyes and ignores the macroeconomic factors that influence the transparency of the cost of foods, which is not attainable within the interconnectedness of the markets. Essentially, Omnivore’s Dilemma is a book about the state of America’s food production, consumption, regulation and distribution (Tyler, 2006). Food Chain Food chains are usually applied in ecological modelling, which provides a continuous variable for measuring passage of energy through various linear linkages from the lowest to the highest trophic feeding levels. Long food chain lengths are unstable with increasing length increases with the ecosystem size and reduction of energy at every successive level. Food chain lengths vary from three to six or even more levels. For example, a four-level food chain will consist of a flower, a frog, a snake and an owl. A five-level food chain may consist of the grass, a grasshopper, a rat, a snake and an owl. The organisms that use solar energy or heat energy to synthesize starch are the producers, such as plants. Consumers are those organisms that feed on other organisms, whereas, all food chains begin with the producer then progresses to the consumer. Therefore, all organisms within a food chain except the first one are all consumers. This fascinating journey through the food chain does not make Pollan a preacher, but he is engrossed in his thoughtfulness and so much dogged a researcher to let ideology take over him. He is surely not a writer who is afraid of soiling his hands in the quest for a better understanding on the manner in which modern food is produced. For example, he does everything from buying his cow to the slaughterhouse, then ultimately to the dinner table. Polla n really capture how Americans eat today from the fast food to the big organic to the locally sourced, ultimately to foraging for dinner armed with a rifle. This idea examines the human diet from capitalism to consumption (Pollan, 2006). National Eating Disorder Americans have changed the way they eat and the usual question that arises daily is based on what will be taken for dinner. This is a simple question that can evolve to be very complex as one tries to figure it out. The evolution of human culture has a great influence on how peoples’ native wisdom about eating, such that the way people eat is riddled with confusion and anxiety. Most ancient and venerable staple foods have abruptly disappeared from the American dinner tables and have made Americans to change the way they eat. This condition can be described as carbophobia. This was supplanted by lipophobia around 1977 when Americans were warned against loving the red meat during the Carter reign, which forced the Senat e committee to issue a set of dietary goals.  

Visual Text and communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Visual Text and communication - Assignment Example It is, therefore, crucial to be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary for communication using signs. Sign as a mean of communication is made up of two components. Signs are made up of signifier as well as the signified (Hoenisch, 2005). The signifier is in other terms a term that is used to represent the real term. For example, a drawing of a tree is a sign that represent a form of existing tree. When a business dealer wants to communicate with his or her customers about when the shop is open or closed he or she do not need to stand there and talk. He or she may draw a tag that says open or closed. The tag becomes of a sign. It is referred as a signifier. It represents the status of the operation in the shop. For the signifier to be meaningful and give information that will eventually lead to effective communication, there must be an object or a situation that is signified. The signified is the object or a situation that we are directed to by the signifier (Messaris, 1994, p. 243). For example, the picture of a tree signifies a form of a real tree. The signifier is the image while the signified is the live tree. Since the communication is in the form of image, the signified will be the mental picture that the reader creates in his mind after observing the image (Cherry, 1966, p. 106). Therefore, the two components of a sign will lead to the term and a full meaning of signification. It means, therefore, that, both of them must make meaning have a significant meaning. There are however some tools that are used in the signs and image language that are associated with images for proper understanding of the situation. Connotation is mostly used together with the term denotation to represent the image situation (Culler, 1985, p. 231). Connotation may be used to represent the emotional attachment that is carried by the image that is giving out the information. With reference

Compare and contrast the development strategies of Mao Zedong and Deng Essay

Compare and contrast the development strategies of Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. Examine the successes and failures of each strategy - Essay Example The focus on economic and agricultural reform is what made the two leaders very similar. That is, they were both concerned about improving their country through agricultural and economic reform. More so, they were both communists looking forward to lead China in that direction. They both started many social, cultural and economic reforms in which some failed and some were successful. According to Deng, socialism was a means to economic development (Ash, Howe and Kueh 2013, p.15). Deng Xiaoping has been identified as a good leader whose actions led to the improvement of the Chinese society. On the other hand, Mao’s actions resulted in more damage than good for the Chinese citizens. Notably, Mao Zedong suggested many strategies in the establishment of Chinese socialism. Some of these included large-scale land reforms and collectivization of agriculture, which were meant to recover the economy and modernize China. In addition, he transformed the living standards of individuals in rural areas by improving healthcare and introducing middle-school education (Bramall 2008, p.549). The land reforms were marked with the enactment of the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, which aimed at dismantling China’s feudal system (Shen 2000, p.3). After land reforms, individuals were able to produce more and the increased production provided enough raw materials for industrial development. Thereafter in 1958, Mao introduced the Great Leap Forward under which high targets were created for industry and agriculture. Mao hoped that China could catch up with Britain in steel and other industries, and so he introduced the collectivization of agriculture under which individuals were t o leave their land and join cooperatives. However, this policy failed and had catastrophic impacts as individual’s working incentives declined leading to food shortage. About fifteen million Chinese people lost their lives due to

Survey Says More Filipinos at Risk of Lifestyle Related Diseases Essay Example for Free

Survey Says More Filipinos at Risk of Lifestyle Related Diseases Essay Recent results of the National Nutrition and Health Survey (NNHeS II) by the Food and Nutrition Research Institute of the Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST) showed that more Filipinos have hypertension, high fasting blood sugar and high cholesterol and triglyceride levels, which are risk factors to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and other lifestyle-related diseases. The NNHeS II showed that one in every four Filipino adults (25.3 percent) has hypertension or a blood pressure (BP) reading equal to or higher than 140/90 millimeter mercury (mmHg). The prevalence of hypertension significantly increased from 22.5 percent in 2003 to 25.3 percent in 2008 based on single BP determination. The survey further showed that 11 in every 100 (10.8 percent) have pre-hypertension or a BP reading at the range of 130-139/85-89 mmHg. High BP increases with age starting from age 40-49 years. The prevalence of high fasting blood sugar (FBS), an indicator of diabetes mellitus, is 5 in every 100 Filipino, based on the NNHeS II. The prevalence increased, though not significant, from 2003 with 3.4 percent to 4.8 percent in 2008. The prevalence of high FBS or hyperglycemia peaks at age 50-59 years. Moreover, the survey showed that 3 in every 100 Filipinos have impaired fasting glucose (IFG). IFG may progress to diabetes mellitus in a few years if not prevented. Hyperglycemia is an FBS level greater than 125 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL), while IFG is an FBS level in the range of 110-125 mg/dL. Dyslipidemia or abnormal lipid levels significantly increased from 2003 to 2008. The NNHeS II showed that one in every ten (10.2 percent) Filipino adults has high total cholesterol level, while 21 in every 100 (21.2 percent) are borderline high. Furthermore, 15 in every 100 (14.6 percent) have high triglyceride level, while 16 in every 100 (15.5 percent) are borderline high. The prevalence of low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c) level increased from 54.2 percent in 2003 to 64.1 percent in 2008. In contrast, the prevalence of high low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c) level did not change much, from 11.7 percent in 2003 to 11.8 percent in 2008. A person is considered to have a low HDL-c level if the fasting blood measurement is less than 40 mg/dl while a high LDL-c level of the fasting blood measurement is greater than or equal to 160 mg/dl. Hypertension, high FBS and dyslipidemia are major risk factors to lifestyle-related diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus and cancer. These lifestyle-related diseases are among the diseases that currently dominate the list of leading causes of death in the country. These are also leading causes of morbidity, particularly diseases of the heart and the vascular system which are the two main leading causes. The government is intensively campaigning for healthy lifestyle to prevent these risk factors and diseases. The healthy lifestyle campaign promotes transformation of various settings into healthy settings, such as healthy workplace, healthy-eating place, healthy communities and healthy schools, among others. Message 10 of the Nutritional Guidelines for Filipinos (NGF) developed by the Technical Working Group led by the FNRI-DOST recommends that for a healthy lifestyle and good nutrition, exercise regularly, do not smoke and avoid drinking alcoholic beverages. The NGF also suggests eating a variety of foods everyday, consuming more fruits, vegetables, rootcrops and legumes, as these are rich sources of fiber that help lower cholesterol level and prolong the response time of our body to blood glucose levels, and limiting the intake of salty foods to help prevent hypertension.

Conflicts and Communication Essay Example for Free

Conflicts and Communication Essay Communication is a very key role in any type of relationship whether it be business, personal or intimate. When we enter into any type of relationship one needs to have the skills to communicate effectively and make sure that the complete message gets portrayed to the receiver. When one does not communicate effectively, the result causes interpersonal conflict. In the movie â€Å"Hitch† it involves two individuals, Will Smith and Eva Mendes, who meet and begin to enter into the beginning stages of a relationship. There is certainly an attraction, both physically and due to a common interest in things. Through hesitation and Mendes declining Smith numerous times, she finally agrees to go out with him and it turns out that they seem to be quite compatible. Through their friendship they begin to develop an intimate relationship with one another. Through this whole process Mendes has been very open and honest about things that are important to her and things that are private to her as well. It seems that Smith is doing the same thing, however it turns out that he is withholding very important information that should be shared with her. The main interpersonal conflict in this movie would be due to Smith not communicating to Mendes that he is the â€Å"Date Doctor†. Mendes has a major issue with this because she had a very good friend who was dumped and she placed the blame on Smith for this situation When she finds out what his true profession is, she become irate and storms off and refuses to speak to him or listen him. This instance caused an instant dissolution of their relationship. There was an issue, but instead of communicating it out loud or discussing it, quite the opposite happened. In our text, Sole states that, â€Å"Resentments, suspicions and other problems occur when people do not communicate or behave in ways that are consistent with the relationship the other person things has been established, and people tend to pay the most attention and to respond forcefully when the communication does not match their expectations† (Sole, 2011). Towards the end of the movie, they finally are able to communicate to each other on the same level and they work things out. In my opinion, all tension could have been resolved and the relationship could have been restored from the get-go if Smith and Mendes would have truly communicated and would have been completely honest and transparent about their lives and the things that they do and that they are involved in. Obviously, it is easier said than done. Another thing that should have been avoided would be assuming things that are really not true. â€Å"The single biggest problem with communication is the illusion that it has taken place† (George Bernard Shaw). This quote really sums up the main point and resolution to problems and issues with intrapersonal communication. Never be so blinded by the things that you are hiding from individuals you are developing relationships with and never assume that they understand things you, as the speaker, have not completely portrayed.

Emotional Intelligence And Leaderships

Emotional Intelligence And Leaderships This essay discusses how emotional intelligence can affect leadership, through the fundamental function of decision making process, and lead to organisational effectiveness. For this purpose, Golemans, Boyatzis et al.s (2002) four key elements of emotional intelligence are employed, which are classified into twenty self and social focused competencies. A number of practical applications are described, explaining how emotional skills can affect leaders ability to achieve the desired outcome during the decision making process. We concluded that organisational effectiveness can benefit from the application of emotional intelligence on leadership skills, through the decision making process. Finally, we note some limitations such as the level of emotional intelligence and its accurate measurement. Keywords Emotional intelligence, leadership, decision making process Introduction Emotional intelligence was first introduced in the late 1980s (Mayer, Roberts, Barsade, 2008). Yet, one of the most controversial issues is how emotional intelligence as the new form of intelligence that concerns the interaction of thinking and feeling, can be employed on leadership and subsequently on organisational effectiveness (Goleman, 1998). There are several definitions and conceptions about leadership and its effectiveness. Until the 1980s, leadership effectiveness was measured by leaders cognitive ability to apply and develop effective strategies for complicated problem solving (Woods West, 2010). However, the last three decades leadership effectiveness due to its apparent social aspect is measured by leaders capability to influence, inspire and motivate followers. (Woods West, 2010). After further research, emotional intelligence evolved into a popular and useful tool for enhancing leadership effectiveness (Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, Boyle, 2006). In our essay we discuss how emotional intelligence through the application of individual and social skills on decision making process, can affect leadership efficiency and lead to organisational effectiveness (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Given the fact that the leaders decisions play a central role in the organisational viability (Woods West, 2010), we consider that the implementation of emotional intelligence resources to the decision making process can contribute notably to the increase of organisational efficacy. Emotional intelligence The term of emotional intelligence was first formally introduced into academic literature in the decade of 1990 by Salovey and Mayer (Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, Boyle, 2006). Emotional intelligence is considered to be a dual dimensional theory that is focused on peoples self and social skills. That means that emotional intelligence concerns the humans ability of having an effective command of expressing, evaluating, managing emotions, communicating feelings and generating thought applied on individual and relationship based level (Salovey Mayer, 1990). It can be classified in two broad models: the ability based model and the mixed model. The ability model involves the abilities of conceiving and recognising the emotions, facilitating thoughts, understanding complex emotions and managing them (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). Emotional intelligence links emotions and intelligence to someones perception for understanding the social environment (Grewal Salovey, 2005). Specifically: Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to understand emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer Salovey, 1997). The four branch model as mentioned above, links hierarchically the basic process of conceiving emotions to the advanced level of understanding them and is measured by MSCEIT [Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional intelligence Test; (Mayer, Caruso, Salovey, Sitarenios, 2003)]. Goleman (1995) introduced the mixed model of emotional intelligence that involves non innate talents but learnt competencies that significantly affect job performance (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). This kind of model mainly addresses leaders performance and provides dynamic outlines for becoming an effective leader. According to Goleman (2001) and Boyatzis et al (2000) the basic elements of the mixed model of emotional intelligence consist of self focused and social focused competencies. These are: self awareness, self management, social awareness and relationship management (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Self awareness involves emotional self awareness, accurate self assessment and self confidence. The emotional self awareness is referred to the fact that someone is fully aware of his/her feelings and realise their impact. The accurate self assessment involves the knowledge of strengths and weaknesses and how they can be eliminated through gradual improvement. A highly self confident person is aware of his/her abilities, expressing strong confidence and being able to deal with difficult tasks (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Moreover, the group of self focused competencies includes self management capabilities that concern emotional self control, transparency, adaptability, achievement, initiative and optimism. The emotional self control is referred to ones ability to setting impulsive emotions under control, while the transparency is associated with integrity and honesty. The adaptability entails flexibility and the ability to easily adjust to spontaneous changes, whereas achievement concerns the fulfillment of goals and targets. The initiative concerns ones ability to act alone holding responsibility for the consequences of his/her actions; the optimism entails seeing the positive aspect of the events and the future facts that might take place (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). The social focused competencies i.e. social awareness and relationship management determine the manner of managing followers. The social awareness includes empathy which means understanding ones concerns and emotional situation, organisational effectiveness which is referred to the efficiency of meeting organisational goals and service which has to do with the comprehension of followers requirements. The relationship management involves inspiration (generating motivations to the followers), influence, developing others (improving ones capabilities), change catalyst (leading an entirely new and innovative modification), conflict management (how to manage disagreements), building bonds (the ability of socialising and developing a network of new relationships) and teamwork (effective collaboration and co existence within the group) (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Leadership and Emotional intelligence According to House et al (1999):Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute towards the effectiveness and success of the organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Yukl, 2006). Some theorists argue that leadership is adjusted according to organisational environment and aims. Hersey and Blanchard (1982) claim, different situations require different kinds of leadership (Situational Theory of Leadership). On the other hand, Fiedlers Contingency Theory (1967) suggests that leadership effectiveness depends on the place, the time, the task and the situation (Arnold, Randal, al, 2010). In any case leadership through its dynamic dimension provides guidelines that can promote organisational effectiveness. By this term, it is meant profitability in financial terms, or organisations ability to equip employees with those skills necessary for performing business fully engaged with the organisational culture (Woods West, 2010). A leaders effectiveness depends on the manner of developing and enhancing followers skills and abilities. Personality characteristics in themselves do not make leaders inherently effective. What matters is how those characteristics are expressed to leaders behavior, and how that behavior is understood by others (Woods West, 2010). The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), the worldwide known Work and Organisational Psychology Organisation, conducts research on what is effective leadership by highlighting the factors that lead to failure (derailing). Its study showed that even though there are common traits between those who succeeded and those who failed, certain characteristics seemed similar for their imminent failure. For example, managers promotion from lower levels of the organisation to upper ones, might lead to over-confident behavior (Woods West, 2010). At the organisational level, leadership is considered to be a mixture of behaviors, administrative abilities, traits and interactions that are driven by the circumstances and the organisational culture; the link among various departments in an organisation managed by the leader (Woods West, 2010). Considerable evidences in recent years note that social skills are vital for leadership performance (Prati, Ceasar, Ferris, Ammeter, Buckley, 2003). An efficiently oriented leader takes advantage of emotional skills and resources in terms of interaction, in order to achieve the optimal performance outcome (Wong Law, 2002). The emotional skills concern the social aspect of emotional intelligence during the interaction process (Riggio Reichard, 2008). Under these circumstances, leaderships outcome is considerably affected by a leaders ability to recognise and manage followers emotions in social interaction (George, 2000). This argument is supported by Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2002) wh o claim that emotional intelligence is fundamental for leadership effectiveness and specifically when it is applied on teams. Antonakis et al (2009) claim that leadership effectiveness is strongly linked to emotional intelligence when concerns the relationship development between the followers and the leader (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, Dasborough, 2009). Since leadership is considered an emotional process, the level of emotional intelligence in a leader plays a significant role in the effectiveness of social interaction with others. George J.M. (2000) in her article Emotions and leadership: The role of Emotional intelligence underlines that there are five basic elements of leadership that are positively correlated with the level of emotional intelligence. The five key elements of effective leadership as presented by the authors Conger Kanungo (1998), Lock (1991), Yukl (1998) are the following: Development of collective goals and objectives. Instilling in others a sense of appreciation and importance of work. Generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust. Encouragement of decision making and change. Establishing and maintaining meaningful identity for the organisation. (George, 2000) Emotional intelligence is the spark that ignites a companys performance creating a bonfire of success or a landscape of ashes. (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). There has been research on the correlation between the level of emotional intelligence and the leadership effectiveness; results showed that ones level of emotional intelligence might play an important role to the leadership effectiveness (Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, Boyle, 2006). However, it is doubtful whether the ability to understand emotions and the ability to act effectively are inextricably linked or not (Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, Boyle, 2006). According to Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005), the higher level of emotional intelligence, the higher leadership effectiveness (Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, Boyle, 2006). Leaders with high level of emotional intelligence inspire, generate motivation to the followers and state greater job satisfaction (Scott-Ladd Chan, 2004). Emotional intelligence and decision making process It is common knowledge that organisations consist of several departments that interact in order to perform business. Koop (1995) claims that this interaction is managed by the decision makers (leaders) (Scott-Ladd Chan, 2004). Under these circumstances, we realise the importance of the decision making process and the impact of their outcomes on organisational effectiveness. The decision making process is classified in the following stages according to Simon (1986) Langley (1989): Rational economic model Definition of the issue. Identification of limiting factors (external and internal). Plan and development of potential alternatives. Evaluation of each alternative in terms of practicality and cost. Selection of the best alternative. Implementation of decision. (Huczynski Buchanan, 2007) The decision making process involves the decision maker and those that are affected by the decision. The decision maker is essential to take into account the people affected by the decision and determine an effective manner of interpreting it (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Subsequently, the decision maker is required to make use of rationality and logic as well as of emotions. However, a controversial issue has been raised by some researchers. This is due to the fact that they consider that the best decisions are made in the absence of emotions. According to Stanovich and West (2000), the shift from emotional thinking to rationality can entail better decisions. They suggested that emotional functions may be substituted and replaced by logic in the aim of enhancing the quality of decisions. By contrast, others claim that the ability to have a good command of ones emotions is an advantage for the decision maker (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Actually, there is no wrong perception of the key factors of the decision making process. What matters most, is to take into consideration the possible impact that emotions might have on the decision making process and the quality of decisions (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Research on emotional intelligence and decision making process Sevdalis et al (2007) in the article Trait emotional intelligence and decision related emotions explain that emotions are evident during the decision making process (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). They suggest that differences in trait emotional self-efficacy can affect the way the individuals experience the impact of the decision (Sevdalis, Petrides, Harvey, 2007). Also, Mellers et al (1999) concluded that the emotions people experience from the impact of a decision, can affect their future attitude and behavior (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). Winter and Kuiper (1997) underlined that every person has a different perception of the emotions experienced whereas, Jordan and Troth (2004) noted that there is a significant difference on the effectiveness of emotional intelligence when the decision making process concerns individual or team tasks accordingly (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). They concluded that individuals with high level of emotional intelligence as members of a team are more likely to come up with better solutions, without the fear of making mistakes (Frye, Bennett, Caldwell, 2006). Studies in PDM (participation in decision making process) have shown that emotionally intelligent employees who are involved in the decision making process contribute to organisations effective response to continuous changes. But, organizations are supposed to clarify to the employees the reason, the way and the degree of their participation in the decision making process resulting in greater commitment and benefits for both employee and employers. Nevertheless, the clear definition of boundaries in the participation of decision making process improves the quality of decision outcomes which depends either on the purpose for implementing PDM or on how efficiently it is implemented (Scott-Ladd Chan, 2004). The contribution and application of emotional competencies to leaders as decision makers Since the decision making process involves stages that are addressed both to brain and emotional function, it is necessary to understand the impact of the application of emotional intelligence on decision makers and the potential outcome. According to Hess Bacigalupo, (2011) no considerable research has been conducted for the practical interaction between behavior and emotional intelligence during the decision making process on both individual and group basis. In their paper, they develop a methodology based on a number of practical applications of emotional intelligence skills on the decision making process that could be useful and beneficial for individuals and organizations development. For this purpose, the model of Goleman (2001) and Boyatzis et al (2000) is applied, as it concerns individual and interpersonal skills, which are both crucial and determinative for the decision making process (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). The group of the skills mentioned, involves self awareness, sel f management, social awareness and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). In the organisational environment, the leader plays the role of the decision maker. Taking advantage of the competencies of emotional intelligence, the possibilities for making an effective decision are increased. The individuals skills i.e. self awareness and self management enable the leader (decision maker) to acknowledge his/her weaknesses, recognise the possible influence that can have on the followers and boost his/her confidence. Why is this so important? Because, it helps the leader to foresee the different aspects of followers vision as well as their reactions and communicate effectively the decision (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) claimed that leaders and followers share control during the decision making process that is based on the assumptions they have formed for the amount of control they possess (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). A strongly efficient leader is supposed to achieve balance during the decision making process; he/she should guide th e discussion appropriately, act as a consultant encouraging the information exchange and the increase of comprehension as well. At this stage, emotional intelligence competencies can be applied, so that the leader can regulate the allocation of control among the parties creating a climate of cohesion. Though, emotional intelligence application is as important as in the case of sharing responsibility for inappropriate decisions. An emotional intelligent leader not only welcomes the commendations of good decisions but also holds responsible for bad decisions (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). This reinforces leaders integrity and reliability, necessary elements for establishing a climate of trust and honesty in an organisation. Moreover, through the self control the leader can develop the skill of controlling emotions and impulses i.e. stress tolerance, which derive from time pressure and unexpected changes in the organisational environment. The ability to manage time pressure and suppress neg ative emotions is considered of utmost importance, as it enables leaders to establish the appropriate climate for making decisions and avoid misjudgments that can have an adverse impact on organisational effectiveness (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011; Goleman,Boyatzis et al, 2002). Likewise, emotional social focused skills i.e. empathy, organisational awareness, conflict management, change catalyst, teamwork and others, are highly important when they are implemented by the leader in an attempt to achieve effective consensus of team decision making. On the grounds that most times the decision is addressed on employees, with different values and beliefs, the leader should be able to manage diversity through the skills of empathy and conflict management. Furthermore, organisational awareness enables a leader as a decision maker, to make decisions that comply with the organisational status and determine the appropriate processes. On the basis of service orientation, decisions that are related to the customers needs and satisfaction are highly appreciated within the organisational environment and add value (profitability) to the image of the organisation. Last but not least, the decision making process involves active participation and constant interaction among me mbers; emotionally intelligent leaders taking advantage of this fact can not only enhance the quality of teamwork and promote relationship development, but also ignite and stimulate followers initiative, motivation and commitment (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011; Goleman,Boyatzis et al, 2002). Conclusion In conclusion, the leader through the application of emotional intelligence can empower followers and establish cohesion among them during the decision making process. This allows to the leader to improve the quality of decision making process increasing the organisations potential for effectiveness (Hess Bacigalupo, 2011). However, we should not overlook a range of factors that can limit emotional intelligence efficiency on organisational basis; queries such as Can emotional intelligence affect negatively the organisational effectiveness if it is excessively high? or Could it be accurately measured? (Fiori Antonakis, 2011) are considered to be crucial and part of future further research on emotional intelligence.